Special Instructions on the Recall

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AUDITORY signal: 'Here' or a whistle.

There is no service required from the dog in which mistaken interpretations of canine behavior cause such distressing consequences as in the recall. The errors so frequently committed in the inducements applied in teaching the recall lead to the very opposite of what is desired. Instead of the dog dashing up to his master in a swift, joyful rush, it approaches him timidly, slowly and hesitantly.

A dog may be seen standing at some distance from its angrily shouting owner with shrinking hindquarters and its tail between its legs. It does not dare to come within his reach and repeatedly eludes the hand that tries to grasp it. The owner, by this time exasperated or, if temperamental, in a blind fury, may now approach the dog, scolding it; whereupon the animal will take to its heels. In this way dogs are made hand-shy. The final act of the tragedy is played when the dog has run home and is there given belated punishment for his 'disobedience'. His clearly recognizable 'guilty conscience'-such is the expression used-is regarded as deserving such treatment.

Though the dog succeeded in eluding the menace of his angrily shouting owner by flight, he nevertheless has to endure belated punishment inflicted upon him at home, as does a slave tormented without reason, out of sheer caprice. The long lapse of time between the 'disobedience' of his failure to come and the punishment forbids (the gap being unbridgeable by canine understanding) the formation of any association with behavior in the past. In other words, the dog has been given no chance to learn its lesson, quite apart from the fact that punishment for failure to come when called is always inopportune. Yet it is by no means uncommon for dog training to be carried out in this mistaken fashion, as though the pupil were a child, which could be dealt with by the use of language. For a child at this stage the word 'Come' suggests an order. If it is not obeyed, we may say: 'If you don't come, you'll be punished' or, hours afterwards explain, 'As you didn't come, you're now going to be punished.' This kind of treatment, covering either the future or the past, is wholly inapplicable with dogs. Dogs cannot speak or understand language. They are unable to form ideas and, therefore, have no conception of orders, obedience, duty, guilt, blame and punishment, praise and reward. They have nothing to do with any kind of morality, or with good and evil.

The fact that training, enables us to make a dog obey, as if in response to an order, is due to a different cause. The degree in which the demands we make upon a dog are successful depends on how closely they approach his innate modes of behavior, which arise from his instincts.

Ever since the dog lived in a state of nature, as a wild animal of wolf type in packs, the pack instinct, or sociable impulse, has dwelt within him, exercising an inner compulsion upon him to remain in close association with his fellows. His life with human beings, when he belongs to a family circle, resembles life in a pack. A dog's dependence on man is the expression of his pack instinct. He suffers greatly if he is left alone for any length of time. It is owing to this pack instinct that we are able to train the dog, unlike the solitary cat, to come when he is called with so little trouble.

We require from him something quite outside his instinctive range, viz. unconditional obedience to the recall in any circumstances, however strong may be the distractions that tempt him to leave his master's side. This requirement does not correspond with any natural conduct in the dog, so it must be learnt, and learnt through compulsion, which is always necessary in cases where the dog does not spontaneously carry out what is required of him.

In this dilemma we are assisted by a further instinct, in addition to that of the pack, which has descended from the dog's past and is innate in him. This is his readiness to adopt a certain rank within the pack. In a pack of wild dogs the leader has despotic power and all the members of the pack are subordinate to him. The human being takes the place of the pack leader. The dog is content to be unconditionally subordinate to him, provided inducements to be so are imposed in the manner in which they are imposed by the pack-leader. But this general subordination does not ensure that a special performance like that of the recall will at once be satisfactorily executed. It has to be learnt.

A man, in his capacity of pack-leader, and a dog, as a member of his pack-not on the lead when training begins-may be walking in a field. Both suddenly catch sight of a running hare. Even if the dog has already been taught the recall he will dash after the hare, however much his trainer may call and whistle.

The dog has no idea of the duty to return to his master. The instinct of the chase has been aroused. It has far greater attractive power than the call or the whistle. Nature commands, 'Go for that hare!' If the dog could think he would consider that his human pack-leader had hopelessly degenerated, since he did not join in the chase.

After pursuit of the hare has proved unsuccessful the hunting instinct ceases to operate and the pack instinct is aroused. The dog, therefore, starts to move towards his master. He would normally trot up quite placidly and jump up on the man in his pleasure at being united with him once more. But something unpleasant and unexpected happens. Before he gets near the man, shouts ring out and the events which have already been described are repeated. The 'guilty conscience' of the dog is again made an excuse for punishment.

Wilhelm Busch, in his German children's classic Max and Moritz, has brilliantly illustrated this subject, without of course having in mind the topic we are now dealing with. Max and Moritz steal, from the roof of the house, the chickens, which the widow Bolte has put on to cook, by fishing them up one after the other through the chimney. The gallant little Pomeranian does all he can to foil the rascals by barking for all he is worth. When, however, the widow returns to her kitchen she thinks the dog is the thief and behaves accordingly. At her scolding words and threatening gestures the Porn immediately assumes a 'guilty' look which increases when the widow Bolte rushes to attack the poor animal, which is absolutely innocent. The infliction of punishment some considerable time after the supposed misdeed, concludes this monstrous scene.

The 'guilty conscience' is caused simply and solely by the so called fear inspired by the menacing noises and gestures of the human being. In fact the dog's 'conscience' is quite 'clear'. Such fear is always aroused in the dog by hostile behavior on the part of its master. For, as a rule, the animal has had it knocked into his memory from puppy hood that hostile human attitudes are accompanied) or quickly followed, by some disagreeable experience. But the cause of fear in the presence of the master is never awareness in the dog of any present, let alone any past, behavior to which the man objected.

The case of the widow Bolte does not, of course, cover all cases of fear of a master being aroused. Threats of this very obvious kind, presaging trouble, are not at all necessary to provoke it. One has only to be vexed with the dog, without saying a word, and fear may well ensue. This is not because the
dog is a thought-reader. He is, however, a first-rate observer, far superior to ourselves, of movement and consequently capable of noticing even the slightest of our physical movements and attitudes. Our hostile or friendly state of mind is perfectly evident to the dog, for human emotions are usually, though often unconsciously, accompanied by physical actions and postures.

If one wishes to provoke an appearance of 'guilt', i.e. fear, in the dog deliberately, one has to take care to give one's physical movements and attitudes the same character as they would have in genuine exasperation. On the other hand, a dog will become aware of human exasperation when one is putting on an act, with an outward expression of good humor but experiencing an inward one of annoyance. The human being is by no means a perfect dissembler along these lines.

But fear can also arise after a misdeed even when we are genuinely well disposed to the dog and let him see it. This may happen in the following way: let us assume that a dog has repeatedly had disagreeable experiences in the past, after approaching his master. For example, he may have chased a cat or eaten something that was not meant for him and the disagreeable experience may have occurred not at the time such undesirable behavior took place but only after its conclusion and out of sight or scent of the objects which provoked it. In such circumstances the dog's bad conduct would not be made to seem unpleasant to him. Chasing the cat, or whatever it may have been, would retain its pleasurable aspect; the unpleasantness would be attributed to what followed.

A 'bad conscience'-for this expression read 'fear'-in the presence of the master arises, in the first place, as a consequence of the hostility expressed in the latter's voice, bodily attitude and movements, in the form of foreboding. A genuinely friendly bearing of the man will also cause it in the form of retrospective terror, if the dog has repeatedly had an unpleasant experience after he has behaved in a certain way.

Both these forms of fear have a particularly unfortunate influence on the recall. They may, however, be completely avoided by the employment of the correct inducements.

Any signs of the dog not progressing with the recall should at once be regarded as evidence of wrongly directed inducement. Let us suppose that the rules laid down in the foregoing pages are being observed, but that they have not been applied in earlier training. Some considerable time will then be required to remove the animal's inhibitions. For fear complexes once formed can only be eliminated, particularly in the case of older dogs, by the exercise of almost angelic patience. Behavior in the manner of the widow Bolte will ruin a good recall more effectively than anything. Attention must be drawn, too, to another point. If a dog at one time seems pleased and at another worried during the recall, it means that our poor friend is in a hopeless state of confusion. Advantage and disadvantage have become entangled, causing that all too familiar hesitant attitude of the dog which may so easily lead us to mistaken conclusions. The animal feels half attracted and half repelled. He cannot unravel the chaotic state of his emotions and is thus unable to discern where his advantage lies. It is an all important first principle, therefore, that, whether the dog comes to his master after behaving in a desirable or in an undesirable way, it must always be given an agreeable experience and a friendly reception at the moment of arrival. We must ensure that the recall is made a thoroughly enjoyable act. In order to lend to the sound 'Here' and the whistle, a power of attraction which will meet all requirements, we must employ methods suited to canine under standing.

To begin with, it will be as well to understand clearly, once and for all, that the dog has no sense of duty. Such anthropomorphic notions continually cause us to apply the wrong kind of inducement, for, however warm may be the feelings of a human being towards a dog, they run the risk of becoming drastically chilled if the animal is assumed to have any kind of insight into the reason for our inducements or any idea of morality. Goodwill is thenceforward replaced by malice and this wrongly conceived attitude involves the taking of compulsive measures which cause a great deal of suffering to an innocent animal and defeat our purpose into the bargain.

In dealing with a dog we have nothing to consider but the giving to him of Pleasure or displeasure by our acts and the proper apportionment of agreeable and disagreeable experiences.

Disagreeable experiences, the reasons for which could only be impressed on a creature capable of understanding human speech, include tying up, locking in, the withholding of food, refusal to speak to the dog and so on. These penalties have only a depressive effect, and they cannot help in training. If such experiences are frequently repeated, the dog loses confidence in its master and often expresses this loss by showing fear in his
presence.

Disagreeable experiences which we impose upon the dog for educational purposes are known as compulsion. It is used in the most diverse degrees, from weak to strong, from a slightly menacing tone in the pronouncement of auditory signals to the infliction of pain, corresponding with the character of the individual dog and the sort of service required. These experiences have an intimidating effect and consequently cause cessation of the behavior for which they are imposed. Agreeable experiences, on the other hand, encourage the animal and consequently cause continuation of the behavior concerned.

Agreeable experiences include the-always abrupt-arrest of compulsion the moment the dog shows the least sign of performing the service required.

The sudden cessation of compulsion may not always bring about the performance of the desired action when this involves a form of behavior which has to be induced and rendered congenial. The cessation of compulsion must then be made to coincide with introduction of an agreeable experience. This consists in the employment of the sound of encouragement, to which we shall refer again in a moment, and the caressingly accented auditory signal sometimes used, as well as in fondling the dog, or in the offering of morsels of food.

The sharp contrast between the disagreeable experience (compulsion) and the agreeable, bringing abruptly changing emotions of distress and pleasure, administered in accordance with the canine behavior at the time, makes it easy for the animal to appreciate where his advantage lies, and he learns very quickly.

In addition to this kind of adjustment to canine understanding an equally important preliminary condition for rapid learning is that the dog is kept in a good temper by the study of his emotional and instinctive life.

The ideal is to ensure that the dog never experiences depression for any length of time. Depression is the enemy of all action, while good humor is a powerful incentive to activity. Unfortunately it is not ordinarily feasible at the commencement of a course of methodical training to prevent depression from ever occurring, especially in sensitive dogs. Even in the case of working dogs a strict form of compulsion cannot always be dispensed with. All we can do, therefore, is to restrict depression as much as possible.

We shall do so by making the change between the disagree able and the agreeable experience rapid and abrupt. An exercise may become for the dog, associated as it is with compulsion, conspicuously uncongenial; but by the means suggested the association of discomfort is restricted to the exercise itself and not transferred to the trainer. There is also the additional factor that the amiability of the trainer, which causes the dog to trust him, must be permanent, transcending everything else and never more than briefly interrupted by compulsion.

A further requisite in making the dog take pleasure in its work, is to see that, so far as possible, its instinctive behavior is called on in coping with the lesson, thus permitting the inward impulse of the dog to come into play.

Finally, every opportunity should be taken to relieve a depressed state without delay. For this purpose the part, necessary in itself, of a human pack-leader employing compulsion, must be replaced by that of a playful pack-companion of equal rank.

This interchange of parts is an important matter to the dog. Those who understand canine mentality make the change-over from pack-leader to companion extremely rapid, so that the instinct of play comes into operation at once. Necessary features of the performance are very short, jerky movements of the body forwards and backwards, to and fro, as if making, by turns, playful attacks or attempts at flight. One has to behave precisely as dogs themselves do at play.

This kind of amusement is also promoted by the utterance of the caressingly accented play-call, at the top of one's voice. The repetition of a noise of this kind, e.g. a long-drawn 'hey-hey-hey-hey-hey-hey-hey-hey', has a most stimulating effect.

The uninitiated may consider this adoption of playful hilarity with the animal ridiculous. But our aim is to establish 4 good understanding between man and dog, and this can only be achieved by putting ourselves on the same level with the animal. 'Dad' and 'Mum' often behave rather strangely when playing with their infant; their sole purpose being to give it pleasure, irrespective of how their behavior may appear to others.

We may also bring about the continuance or cessation of an action by using the two expressions 'Bahl' and 'There's a good boy' by way of intimidation or encouragement, but never to convey blame or praise.

The sudden alternation between agreeable and disagreeable experiences which has been recommended is particularly difficult for those who are fond of dogs, yet find it impossible to get rid of their anthropomorphic prepossessions. Such people have their hands tied by the ideas of praise and reward, blame and punishment. These human means to education cannot of course be used with such abrupt transitions as the provision of agreeable and disagreeable experiences. One cannot imagine oneself praising and blaming, or punishing and rewarding, in the same breath, a child that understands human speech.

There are, however, occasions in human life when we do employ abrupt alternation in cases of desirable or undesirable behavior Children who are playing 'hunt the thimble' or some such game are often guided in their search by someone who knows where the thimble is hidden. If the child gets near the hiding-place, a certain expression, such as 'hot', is used, which may be regarded as the equivalent to 'There's a good boy', and another, 'cold', which may be likened to 'Bah !', is employed, if the child moves away from the hiding-place. Such expressions are often used in rapid succession, as the child moves close to or away from the hidden object. We behave in exactly the same way with the alternation of agreeable or disagreeable experiences in the case of a dog, according to whether his behavior corresponds or is at variance with the object of training.

It has already been explained that a dog approaching his trainer must be shown that a warm welcome awaits him, for it is only in the expectation of such a welcome that he will come with any speed. To appreciate this exercise better we will divide it into two parts. The first begins with the inducement to come and extends to the point at which the animal comes into contact with his trainer as he runs towards him. The second comprises the inducements offered after the dog's arrival. We may get a better idea of the way in which the recall comes to be performed, if we compare this process with that of teaching heel on lead. Each time the dog on the lead moves away from the left side of the trainer he is jerked back again by the lead. This is the primary inducement given. The jerk on the lead is a form of compulsion, experienced by the animal as disagreeable and intimidating, which after several repetitions causes straying from the trainer's left side to be abandoned. Each time the dog is jerked back the compulsion definitely ceases and the sound of encouragement, which is accompanied by fondling, provides an actively agreeable experience. The dog thus finds it to his advantage to remain at the trainer's left side. This locality comes to be regarded by the animal as a refuge from discomfort; a place where he finds security as soon 1 as he hears the sound 'Heel'.

The point is that the dog must learn to do what is required in response to an auditory or visual signal. For this purpose, right from the start, a certain sound must be made at the same time as the primary inducement is given by the lead. (Visual signals are usually dispensed with in heel work.) The sound 'Heel' is at first quite ineffective. It is only after several repetitions that this noise begins to be associated with the movement that jerks the animal to the man's left side and with staying in that position. The word 'Heel' then becomes a secondary inducement. The association thus formed through memory causes the sound 'Heel', used by itself, to evoke the same response as was originally effected only by the primary inducement.

Substantial differences, however, exist in the psychological composition of the separate exercises required from the dog. From this point of view heel on lead contrasts with the recall.

In teaching the former the led dog remains permanently under the trainer's control, so that each of the primary inducements required for learning the lesson, which mainly consist in jerking the dog to the left side of the trainer, has the effect desired. A further advantage is that the employment of compulsion at the right moment, and to the right extent, works almost automatically. Jerk-pull-we achieve our object in the simplest possible way and the dog pulled to our left side is let alone so long as he stays where he is.

In these circumstances mistaken conceptions of the man and dog relationship cannot have nearly such a harmful effect as, could result in teaching the recall. It then often happens that the dog is off the lead and may be a long distance from his master, so that he is peculiarly at the mercy of distractions. Consequently, a considerable period of training must elapse, in i contrast with teaching heel on lead, before the primary inducements (which have yet to be specified) can in every case succeed with the unattached animal, to say nothing of such secondary ones as the call 'Here' or a whistle, which are at first nothing but meaningless echoes in the dog's ears.

The fact is that we are not able to impose inducements on a dog that is off the lead in such a way that he will always behave in accordance with our wishes. The necessity for training without the lead is one of the special difficulties encountered in mastering the recall. It is true that we may use the long lead, but the latter is only an auxiliary resource, insufficient in itself to achieve the object of training.

Another particularly difficult feature in teaching the recall is the correct use of compulsion. For we shall not succeed, without appropriate compulsion, in securing thoroughly reliable performance.

Compulsion can never be employed in recall training until just before the dog meets its master, in other words it can only be used in the first Phase of the welcome. The dog must never, throughout its life, have any-even the slightest-disagreeable experience on coming into physical contact with its master. Nothing other than a friendly reception, consisting in fondling and the utterance of sounds of encouragement, must ever be given. Even the mildest form of compulsion, e.g. a commanding I Here', such as is always accompanied by a menacing bodily attitude, frightens the animal and causes inhibitions in coming up until he is reassured. Any compulsion applied must be relieved immediately it has achieved its object.

The sound of encouragement and other inducements, which still remain to be specified, must be employed to eliminate the fear provoked and restore the animal's zest and confidence. To express this matter more clearly we may say that so long as a sword of Damocles, in the form of threatening sounds and movements, is hanging over the dog he is bound to feel anxiety, especially if he knows from experience that he is in for a bad time as soon as he gets to his trainer. Any creature on earth would be repelled by such a feeling.

So much then for the use of compulsion in teaching the recall. We may now recall the case in which a dog accompanying field dashes after a flying hare and, again his master across a deliberately to use an anthropomorphic expression, is quite astounded when his human pack-leader, instead of joining in the chase, incomprehensibly takes no notice of it and stays where he is.

The impulse innate in a hunting beast of prey like a dog to chase anything that moves rapidly away from him is employed as one of the main attractive forces in teaching the recall. It is then he human pack-leader who takes over the part of the flying hare, though without, of course, exercising the same powerful attraction. The man runs, like the hare, away from the dog. With his face turned towards the animal, he moves backwards as fast as possible, in a straight line, while at the same time the dog's ear catches the successive sounds, uttered in extremely loud and caressing tones, of 'Here'.
The trainer's backward run and also the accompanying calls of 'Here' last until the animal reaches the man and touches him when it is invariably greeted in friendly fashion.

If necessary, the attractive force of this backward run may be increased by the trainer making long leaps away from the dog, with his back turned to it this time, keeping the direction straight. Deviations, as well as looking round, and thus interrupting or slowing down the backward run, decrease the attraction of the latter, especially when the dog has been rendered uneasy by some disagreeable experience that took place shortly before. In such circumstances, the modifications referred to in the backward run will operate as if they were the renewal of a hostile attitude.

The backward run from the dog affects two instincts: the pack instinct and that of the chase. If, for instance, the pack leader begins to run, the impulse arises in its pack companions to keep within the pack. Moreover, any movement of the pack leader stimulates, the more powerfully the faster it is, both the psychological and physical elements in the other members of the pack, for the commencement of a rapid gait is associated with the chase or some other exciting event. If only everyone who is fond of dogs could be convinced of the power, and the effects it can produce, residing in human bodily attitudes and movements!

Let us now take a closer view of actual practical training. Since it is the man who is conducting it, we must first deal with him. As we have already seen, a benevolent attitude to the dog, which must never be relaxed, is the indispensable and ruling principle of teaching the recall. We shall the more easily maintain it the more accurately we understand true canine nature. Once we lose our self-control-and we shall frequently be put to the test-the results of all our painstaking work may be lost and a cruel injustice be done to the dog.

Let us once more make certain that we understand the following axiom. The final object of training, in the case of the recall, is that the dog should come quickly and cheerfully to his master in response to a secondary inducement alone, either the call 'Here' or a whistle, and of course invariably come quite close up to him.

Prior to the formation of this habit, primary inducements compose the attractive forces required. One of the latter, the backward run from the dog, has already been mentioned.

It is important to pay attention to the following point. Successful instruction depends partly upon the simultaneous use of secondary and primary inducements. We may exemplify the point by reference to the primary inducement employed in the backward run. In the case of a novice dog any backward run by the trainer in the absence of a simultaneous 'Here' or whistle would be ineffective. Premature and isolated use of the word 'Here' or the whistle would also be wrong. Premature use may be recognized by the fact that the dog does not come so briskly as when the primary inducement is used at the same time. It shows that the association desired between the word 'Here' or the whistle and the reaction to come has not yet become sufficiently stable. There is no question of 'perversity' on the part of the dog.

Those who assume such 'perversity' become excited and try, by shouting at the dog and executing movements expressive of menace, or by advancing upon the dog at a run or a walk, to compel the animal to approach more quickly. Quite apart from the fact that any advance upon the dog made in anger arouses the latter's instinct of flight, and thus in the end produces the very opposite effect from that desired, we forget, in our anger, to relieve the dog's anxiety and the menacing figure of Wilhelm Busch's widow Bolte, so to speak, stands over the wretched animal.

The primary inducements are only toned down very gradually. In the case of the backward run the distance is abbreviated and the speed slackened, until at last the run is merely indicated by its initial physical movements. In calling, the loud tones are lowered by degrees to normal and the caressing accent progressively attenuated. The dog is always closely watched as it approaches, and the primary inducement is immediately resorted to again and its attractive power intensified as it becomes necessary.

Many dogs are strongly attracted-we may call this an extra primary inducement-if we reduce our bulk by crouching as low as possible, for example by actually kneeling or even lying full length on the ground. We may welcome the dog while remaining in this posture.

Two exercises which include the run back as a primary inducement are to be distinguished. The first is teaching the recall combined with the down, and the second is calling the dog while off the lead but quite near to his master.

In teaching the down the latter exercise may be suitably combined with the recall from the very first day. When the dog is left to itself, it feels lonely. The trainer, as he walks away, arouses the impulse in the animal to rejoin his master. This impulse grows as the distance and the period of absence lengthen. It is a happy release for the dog thus left to itself when it is able, in accordance with the pack instinct, to rejoin its master.

The psychological state of the dog, when left alone, affords an excellent opportunity for obtaining an enthusiastic and rapid recall and lays a first-rate foundation for forming the habit of doing so. If on such occasions the run back is also used, this auxiliary expedient considerably enhances the attractive power coming from the master.

When first teaching the down, with master and dog quite close to each other and the latter still on the lead, the primary inducement, implying permission to stand up and come, is actually given by a jerk at the lead, accompanied by a simultaneous, caressingly uttered 'Here'. If the run back is also added, at the same time, to these two inducements, it operates as the decisive attractive force, encouraging the dog to come quickly. It is true that by this procedure we have to accept an undesirable association, that of the run back as a sign to come, accompanying as it does the other inducements. This slight drawback may however be accepted without misgiving. The association is dispersed as the distances increase and the run is omitted, or only resorted to during the recall itself if the latter leaves something to be desired.

The ultimate aim of the down is of course that the dog should only come at a call or whistle and remain prostrate, while the master runs away.

Running backwards is indispensable for recall instruction in the case of a dog off the lead, moving about close to his master and feeling at liberty. Such exercises may be used with even quite young dogs when they are first taken out. In this case the psychological state of the dog differs from that pertaining to the down and must be borne in mind.

When the dog is not left to itself and, therefore, is not lonely, but is running free, the animal's senses and desires are not exclusively directed upon his master, as they are when down. A dog off the lead is preoccupied with its own affairs.

What we call distractions, for instance a cat running away, may possess a considerably stronger attractive force for a dog being taught the recall than all the inducements his master can offer. Hence arises the need to strengthen the inducements provided by the man to such an extent that they outweigh all distractions, but we can only gradually meet this requirement. In the days of training by force, which one shudders to think of, the following were the guiding principles in the drill imposed. First the dog must grasp the idea of obedience. All resistance by the animal must be broken by the strictest form of compulsion, such as the use of the whip and the spiked collar. This requirement had to be met by means of drill in a room from which the dog could not escape. As consciously contrived resistance by a dog only exists in the imagination of human beings, the excessive and unnecessary compulsion was exercised in a wholly mistaken fashion. As a result, the dog became utterly cowed the moment it entered the training-room and its timidity, as usual, rendered it extra ordinarily difficult to teach. Its sufferings under this superfluous drill must have been appalling. Indeed, from a technical point of view, the recall can never be properly taught in a room, which affords no opportunity for the exercise of the pack instinct. And what becomes of a dog's natural enthusiasm in a training-room, where it has to learn all the other rigorous
disciplines into which compulsion enters? Yet this enthusiasm is just what we need. Depression can even overwhelm a dog when he is taken to a training-ground in the open, where he is taught submission by means involving compulsion. His recollection of previous compulsion is responsible for this condition. Backward running practice with the dog off the lead cannot be undertaken in such places. The animal would either remain close to his master or rush away from him. The backward run is best practiced when the dog i taken to localities where he has never experienced compulsion of any kind. Powerful distractions must, however, be absent from such a neighborhood. If a distraction should occur which attracts the dog more than the run back, one should prevent its operation, if possible, by putting the dog on the lead before he notices it. If it is too late for this procedure and the backward run, combined with the word 'Here', does not result in approach, one is left, at this stage of training, quite without control over the dog. The sooner this is fully understood the better. In such circumstances, as for instance when the animal chases a hare, we can do nothing, but when the dog eventually rejoins his master of his own accord, he must be welcomed with the backward run and invariably received in friendly fashion.

When the backward run is being practiced with a dog off the lead, it does not matter, at the start of instruction, whether the animal is in front, to the side of or behind his trainer. All that is necessary is for the dog to be some paces distant from the man and able to see the latter run back. The first few exercises should be begun while the dog is actually looking at his trainer, or else the animal's attention should be attracted by a clearly audible sound, such as is produced by a vigorous slap on one's knee. After a few repetitions the word 'Here', which will, of course, always be uttered in conjunction with the backward run, will cause the dog to look towards his trainer. On arrival, the dog reaches the second phase of enjoyment. As has several times been emphasized, the dog grasps neither the sense nor the object of what is required of him, but only its external succession of events in time and space. When, therefore, immediately on arrival, something disagreeable occurs, this experience will tend to give the recall an unpleasant character. In other words an undesirable association will be formed, leading to inhibited recall. Consequently, exercises involving compulsion should never be undertaken immediately after the recall. Further details on this point will be given when we describe the second phase of enjoyment.

It is also necessary for the dog to be released immediately after being given his due welcome and for the auditory signal which we employ when the dog is at liberty to be used. The primary inducement given by the trainer running a few paces forward is then of particular importance in dealing with a novice dog.

The dog's feeling of being at liberty would be obliterated, if the recall follows running ahead at too short an interval. The abatement of this feeling may be recognized if the dog no longer runs off happily when his master sets him at liberty after being recalled. A mild form of compulsion, consisting in the use of the intimidating exclamation 'Bahl' and a sharply uttered 'Here', may begin soon after the back-run exercises start. One should never forget to relieve compulsion by employing the sound of encouragement 'There's a good boy'. It will often be necessary to switch abruptly from 'Bah!' to 'There's a good boy' and back again. But this mild compulsion offers us no protection from the attractive power of strong distractions. Strict compulsion is indispensable for that purpose. At this point we reach the most delicate stage in teaching the recall.

At the stage when the dog is already happily running to its master, as a result of having invariably enjoyed pleasurable experiences on making its approach, the most effective means we can think of for the reinforcement of the sounds 'Here' and the whistle would be some measure which would enable us to give it a fright, however distant it might be. The moment the feeling of alarm begins and ceases a caressing 'Here' would be uttered and as soon as the frightened animal looked at its master the run back, accompanied by repetition of the word 'Here', would be initiated. With these inducements the dog, even if exposed to the most powerful distractions, would learn to put them aside and run to its master. Such a measure would be ideal for eliminating all the difficulties connected with the achievement of a reliable recall. What substitute can we make use of in place of this imaginary resource?

The first expedient is the use of the long lead.

Just as, in practice with the lead, the primary inducement given by pulling in the lead succeeds in every case, such an inducement given with the long lead might succeed when we are dealing with the recall. It is possible, by use of the word 'Here', the run back and the friendly reception, to attract a dog from some distance away. But the series of events consisting of putting the dog on the lead, retreating from him and pulling him in, or simply the dog's awareness of being on the long lead, would soon cause the animal to remain obstinately at his master's side. Moreover, the recall taught with the long lead alone would only succeed while the dog was on the lead. With the animal off the lead training would be impossible.

This limitation may be overcome to some extent if we use the long lead only in cases when the dog is highly excited by a distraction, for he then pays no attention to the fact that he is on the lead. This happens, for example, when the dog is learning to work on the 'criminal' and, while angrily barking, is called back. On such occasions a strong jerk at the lead is given to the sound of 'Here', and the dog is pulled in as the trainer run backwards.

The long lead may also be used with dogs that have be (spoilt by mistaken inducements. It may be of service, too, breaking the dog of undesirable habits, for example reversion to a state of nature, hostility to cats and so on. For these purposes the dog is taken on the long lead, which is, however, held short, as in ordinary heel work, to places where the detractions in mind are to be found. On the dog taking notice of one he is set at liberty by allowing the lead to run out. As soon as the tightened lead causes a powerful jerk, which may be reinforced by a simultaneous backward jerk administered by the trainer, the dog sustains a shock and the recall inducements already described can be applied.

In this case, the shock felt by the dog is of assistance in lending urgency to the simultaneous sounds of 'Here' or the whistle. Consequently, when combined with the backward run this shock substantially improves reliability in the recall and will often break the animal of undesirable habits.

Nevertheless, as already stated, comprehensive perfection in the recall is not obtainable by means of the long lead. From the dog's point of view recall when he is off the lead is quite a different matter, especially in the presence of strong distractions. Our control of the dog is limited so long as we lack the ideal measure already mentioned.

The limits of our control do not extend far beyond the distances within which we can alarm the animal. This is particularly the case with tough dogs having a strong pack-leader instinct and a weak pack instinct.

Our range for the administration of alarm at a distance will depend on the one hand on that of the means at our disposal and on the other on the trainer's adroitness in making use of such means.

An advocate of training by force recommends for the 'reformation of dogs which have deteriorated' the 'disciplinary shot', fired from a gun, and draws attention to the 'moral effect' of this expedient. If the dog, contrary to the man's wishes, pursues a fleeing hare, he is peppered with the pellets of the 'disciplinary shot'. Such barbarous procedure cannot be advocated. From the point of view of pure theory this method may be correct in its administration of alarm and pain at the moment of the action that the dog is to be made to discontinue. In practice, however, the method has an adverse effect, as the pain inflicted by the wounds may last a considerable time. Yet it will not be possible, in that case, to restrict the requisite disagreeable experience applied to the animal.

That one falls into further error with regard to the effect of this method is evident from these basic assumptions: "Immediately after the disciplinary shot the dog should be whistled in, put on the lead and vigorously chastised with the spiked collar and the whip, to make him realize that the shot was meant for him." This is, of course, to give an outrageously human character to canine understanding and implies an utter misconception of the possible relationship between man and dog.

The further punishment recommended, after the 'disciplinary shot' and the arrival of the dog, while the latter is entirely guiltless, can naturally only be associated by the animal with the recall, for the dog has not the remotest idea why pain is inflicted upon him. A realization by the dog that it was his master that gave him the pain cannot be brought about in this manner, and it is of course totally undesirable that it should be.

If one is in a position, in certain cases during training, to give the dog the impression that the compulsion applied, a necessary measure in itself, does not emanate from oneself, it would be quite advantageous. If these types of punishment were given on the recall, the dog would become hopelessly hand-shy. A single experience of this kind would be enough to ruin sensitive animals.

It cannot be too often repeated that the reception given must always be a friendly one and that it must be particularly effusive after the dog has been alarmed. We must also keep in mind the second phase of enjoyment.

As devices for administering shock to attract attention at a distance, we have such things as the casting chain (a light chain about a foot long) and throwing stick. When using these one must invariably keep one's whole attention fixed on the dog, so as to be able to bring inducement to bear on him as required. One should not, for instance, be worrying about where the stick may fall, with a view to recovering it later.

As in ordinary backward run training, the dog is off the lead and at perfect liberty, while we keep our chain or stick handy, ready to throw. Open country only is used for this type of training. The dog must not be allowed to observe any preparations we make to use the device and his attention must by some means be diverted from his master, but he need not be in movement. The stick or chain should be used at a favorable opportunity, when the dog cannot see it.

At the instant when the missile strikes the dog or flies audibly past him or drops to the ground near him thereby causing alarm, the word 'Here' is uttered, caressingly during the first lessons, later in a sharper tone, and as soon as the dog, after his alarm, looks towards his master, the latter begins to run backwards, an attractive and extremely important procedure after administering alarm.

If the dog seems to be depressed, the previously described enthusiastic game is started directly after welcome. The dog is then again set at liberty. The long-range device should never be used on a dog as he approaches, but kept exclusively for the single purpose of causing him to do so. If the recall after alarm still leaves something to be desired, a mild form of compulsion only is employed, by resorting to the intimidation sound, a commanding 'Here', or the primary attractive inducements of the backward run, etc., may be reinforced as already described.

Particular care should be taken that exercises involving alarm are not performed in too rapid succession. Time intervals must be even longer than in ordinary backward run practice, so that the dog is given adequate time to regain his normal equanimity.

Exercises involving alarm are not only performed during specific expeditions with the dog but can also profitably take place whenever the dog, while off the lead, has been distracted from his master and is not at too great a distance for the employment of the long-range device.

The necessity of avoiding anything in the nature of a disagreeable experience for the dog on his arrival has been repeatedly stressed. This applies to all exercises performed when training is not yet so far advanced as to entail even a slight degree of fear due to compulsion. Before the application of discomfort after arrival a time interval is absolutely indispensable and is preferably occupied by a change of location and the provision of an agreeable experience. It should last from one to two minutes or longer in the case of sensitive dogs.

Here are some examples.

The warm welcome, and even more the enthusiastic game, results in the dog leaping joyfully up against his master and, frequently, licking him. This undesirable habit should only be very gently and gradually discouraged. It serves our purpose to be patient with it at first to avoid marring the enjoyment of arrival.

One should never forget to fondle the dog when putting him on the lead, if this action is taken after arrival.

It is expecting a very great deal of a dog-owner to insist on his giving a warm welcome to the dog throughout its life on every single occasion, even if the animal has previously misbehaved in some way. It may for instance have killed a chicken in a neighbor's garden. Yet even so the dog must positively be welcomed with fondling. Some people may find this incomprehensible. Are we to praise a dog and give him pleasure after he has committed so gross a crime? But such a view is, of course, totally wrong. Even if we do not take this view, it may be difficult to keep cool in such cases. It must be done, however, if we are to be fair to the dog and not to prejudice the object of training.

We can only induce a dog to regard a certain undesirable action as uncongenial if the objects that incited the action are made physically available to his eyes and sense of smell. In the case cited, the dead chicken, if it can be obtained, can be used for this purpose, so that the animal may be brought to regard the sight and scent of chickens as uncongenial.

After having been duly welcomed on his return, the dog is taken, on the lead, to the chicken. On the way he is not subjected to any disagreeable experience. It is the chicken, of course, that has to act as the bringer of discomfort. Not until the dog is close to and both sees and scents the chicken is he (while held on the shortened lead) given a few vigorous blows, accompanied by the repeated syllable 'Bah!'. He may also be buffeted about the ears by the chicken, while 'Bah' is repeated. After this, the dog is led away from the chicken and should be fondled as soon as the dead bird is beyond the range of his observation. The procedure may be repeated immediately. As result of his experience of unpleasantness in the presence of the chicken and pleasure in its absence, the bird becomes an object of repulsion to the dog.

At the advanced stage of training, when the dog can be relied on to come merely in response to the secondary inducements of call or whistle, we must remember that what the dog has learnt does not make a lasting impression on his memory. just as with human beings, a lesson committed to memory, unless it is, like the alphabet, drummed into the mind from infancy, has to be repeated from time to time in order to be retained. Regular practice is therefore undertaken with working dogs, in which the lessons learnt are repeated.

It is not only a question, here, of training in the acquisition of bodily aptitudes. In the first place there are differences between learning intelligently and learning by heart. We may try to repeat, without looking at the paper, the seven numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128. We shall be able to do it at once if we can grasp the mathematical significance of this series of figures. But if we try to repeat the seven numbers 118, 9, 2, 7, 19, 3 and 26, we cannot do it. This series can only be learnt by heart. We are only able to learn the figures by frequent repetition and we only remember them if we again repeat them occasionally after they have been learnt. Otherwise the associations established dissolve; we forget. In the dog's case it is the same. The lessons we teach him are learnt on a basis of memory, not of intelligence.

A dog is trained to behave in a certain way and to do so in response to certain auditory or visual signals. Associations are established between these secondary inducements and the behavior which the primary inducements bring about. The purpose of repetitions after the lesson has been learnt is to ensure that these associations do not relax or actually dissolve but remain fixed in the memory.

In other words, in order to obtain a fully trained dog the primary inducements must occasionally be used at the same time as the secondary ones. The former are, of course, as has several times been emphasized, the true renovating forces operative on the active and passive services required from the dog. Thus, in order to achieve a reliable recall, the backward run and, where necessary, the administration of alarm must, from time to time, be employed in combination with 'Here' or the whistle. So, too, must downward pressure be used in teaching the down, the jerk at the lead in heel work and so on.

When the dog fails to execute a movement already learnt, it does so not from disobedience but through forgetfulness, caused by lack of, or insufficient, training and repetition.

Finally, it should be realized that the following object of training may be envisaged as a service to be rendered by the working dog. The animal which comes to his handler at enhanced speed in response to call or whistle, is to take up a position of his own accord, on the man's left side if the latter is standing. If the man is walking the dog is likewise to come of its own accord tohis left side and follow him. In neither case should the dog be allowed to move away until the auditory signal for release is given.

Two different auditory signals, call or whistle, are used in the recall exclusively. The whistle is only used because it carries further than the human voice.

Many trainers are in the habit of continually whistling to the dog, without thereby intending him to come close to them. This may happen, for example, when the dog is running ahead and we wish to indicate to the animal that we are turning a comer, going into a shop or something of that sort. One should make an irrevocable rule, that 'Here' must be recognized by the dog as a signal for attracting him immediately, under any circumstances, to close contact with his master. Whenever 'Here' is uttered, the dog must be made to come quite close up to his master and must, if possible, be fondled.

If it is not desired that the dog should come close in but the intention is only that the animal should notice what we are doing or observe the new direction that we are taking, the signal 'Here' should never be employed, but anew one, which may be called a warning signal, should be chosen for the purpose. Some kind of clicking of the tongue or a mouse like squeak would be best. The latter is made when one sucks in air with pursed lips. The dog will turn his head as soon as he hears this signal and instead of running to his handler will take the latter's new direction. If the same signal is employed whether the dog is to come close in or only look round and take note of his handler's direction, how can the animal understand the meaning of the word 'Here'? And yet, when a dog fails to understand he is called disobedient!

Special care is required calling a dog when it meets another of the same sex. The progress of this sort of canine encounter will repay observation. We must remember that when two dogs of the same sex and about the same size meet they usually regard each other as enemies. If they are mature, both males and females scent a rival. They move stiffly towards and round each other, sniffing and ascertaining each other's sex, and eventually part with slow and stiff movements, only breaking into a faster gait when they are well apart. If one of them takes to flight before the encounter, he exposes himself to hostile pursuit. The only way to avoid this is to proceed with the encounter as described. If, therefore, we whistle to a dog so engaged, he cannot in such circumstances obey the summons, for he would at once be attacked by the other dog if he ran away. The encounter must proceed in the canine fashion. The dog summoned must actually, for his own sake, first part in slow motion from the other and only then move faster. If dogs are alarmed while encountering each other, a fight starts immediately, since the convulsive twitch induced by alarm is taken for the preliminary to an attack or flight.

In considering the main aspects of teaching the recall we must continually bear in mind the necessity for keeping both phases of the enjoyment in view.

In the first phase, that which covers the recall until the dog comes quite close, discomfort should only be applied in very rapid alternation with a pleasurable experience. A novice dog, or one being trained, which has made physical contact with the master must, without exception, be given a warm welcome. Even the trained animal should never experience the slightest discomfort while in this position. In the second phase a time interval must elapse, occupied by the agreeable experience and lasting from one to two minutes, before the dog is subjected to any less agreeable experience.

Not until the trainer has learnt how to allot pleasantness and unpleasantness as he would with children whom he controls, as they walk, by calling to them, will he satisfy one of the principal requirements for creating an understanding between man and dog.

This applies throughout the entire course of training.

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