My Dog is Dog Aggressive.
What Can I Do About It?
By Ed Frawley
One of the most common problems that
dog owners email me about is a problem with their dogs being dog aggressive
or aggressive to other animals. There are many, many different reasons
for dogs being aggressive
to other dogs, cats or other animals. This article will only address
a couple of areas. I am currently writting a book that attempts to
list all of the reasons for dominance and aggression. At this time
I have identified a little less than 30 catagories.
To understand the solution to these
problems
one must first understand the cause of this aggression. The most common
causes are:
1- Once a dog has been attacked by
another dog or even badly scared
by another dog. Many times once a dog has been attacked it will be
dog aggressive its entire life. This only needs to happen one time
in a
dog’s
life
.
I compare this to a woman who has been
raped. Being raped has a life long effect on a woman. A dog who is
attacked
suffers similar trauma. More often than not being attacked or badly
scared often changes
them forever.
People who allow their puppies to socialize
with strange dogs are playing Russian roulette with their dogs. I would
never allow one of my dogs to be around strange dogs. Dogs are
pack animals they don't need to meet and greet other dogs. Read the
article I wrote on dog parks being a very bad idea.
Many fighting dogs attack
with lightning speed. The attack comes right out of the blue. Dog
fighters have learned that a sudden, violent attack is usually a
sucessful
fight.
So unsuspecting
naive
owners in dog parks never
see a fight coming.
When they meet other dogs they are immediately
going
to determine a pecking order with the new dog. Too often this leads
to fights.
Dogs look to their pack leader for protection:
It is vitally important that dog owners
understand that their puppy or young adult looks to their owner for
protection
when faced with a threat. Many times new owners foolishly think their
poor puppy or young dog should try and protect himself and act tough.
This is foolish and wrong. This kind of thinking shows a complete
misunderstanding
of a dog’s genetic pack instincts.
In a dog pack the pack leader (YOU) are
supposed to protect the pack members. Lower ranking members of the pack,
(your puppy) expects this to happen when they are threatened by another
dog.
When I am out for a walk and a strange
dog approaches I become aggressive towards this strange dog. If
the intruder does
not back off I will actually attack the other dog if he will not leave
us alone.
Very few untrained dogs are going to
try and fight a human. I begin with a serious warning, i.e. GET AWAY
AND
GO HOME!
If this does not work I will advance
on the dog with direct eye contact and a loud
deep-throated threatening warning.
If this doesn’t work I am looking
for something to hit this other dog with. If I have pepper gas I will
use it, even if the owner is there.
If another pet owner is so slow or so
stupid that he will not take control of his dog when he sees another
pet owner is upset, well they will witness the consequences of their
stupidity. The way I look at it is this then becomes part of the experience
they need to become a responsible pet owner.
If you have to explain
your actions to the police
you simply tell them that you were afraid for your personal safety
and
that you were protecting yourself from an unleashed dog.
I never gamble that a strange dog
is going to be friendly with my puppy. Until I know the temperament
of another dog and I am sure he will not attack my dog I have to deal
with it my way.
2- The second major reason for dog aggression
is rank drive within the dog pack.
Very few people who are new to dogs
understand
how strong their pets’ genetic pack drives are. From the time
a
puppy comes out of the mother it is programmed with very powerful genes
that effect their dogs’ behavior. The strongest of these genes
is pack drive.
When we bring dogs into our homes their
pack drives effect their behavior in how they interact with family members.
A perfect example was my personal dog
(Cyrus). Cyrus was 2 1/2 years old
and is good with almost all people except my 16 year old son. When
he
sees my son his tail goes up, his body stiffens and he will growl at
him.
He did this because he was trying
to increase his pecking order in the family
pack. In other words, he thought he should be a higher level in
the
pack than Jeff. When I see this happen I verbally correct Cyrus. Every
instance of unwarranted aggression should result in a serious correction.
Many people have more than one dog in
their household. They may be able to control and get by with two dogs
in a family situation, but the minute they add a third dog they have
a dog-pack.
When a dog pack is established in a
home the balance of nature changes and it is only a matter
of time
before
these
animals
begin
to establish a new pecking order.
Sometimes this is done without a dog
fight but more often than not a fight takes place.
It’s
important for these people to know how to safely break up a dog fight,
I have written an article
on
this subject.
For this reason I am not a fan of people
trying to raise three dogs at the same time. Doing so requires additional
handling skills that most people are not prepared to deal with. I have
a free eBook on my web site titled THE GROUND WORK TO ESTABLISHING
PACK STRUCTURE WITH ADULT DOGS. You may want to review this.
I also
have a free eBook titled HOW
TO INTRODUCE A NEW DOG INTO A HOME WITH OTHER DOGS. This is also
a good resource for new pet owners.
So the solution to dog aggression can
start with the handler making good decisions as they raise their puppies
and not allowing dogs to live (unsupervised) in a dog pack.
But if you have come to my web site to
read this article you probably already have a dog aggressive pet and
need to know how to change his behavior.
3- Another common reason that dogs are
animal aggressive is because of their prey drive. Some dogs have a
strong
prey drive and they will chase and kill other animals by instinct.
Chickens, cats, sheep or other animals that will run from them are
prey.
Correcting this behavior is best done
with an electric collar. I talk about electric collars at the end of
this article.
Here is the solution:
You are supposed to be the pack leader.
In many pet homes this is not
always the case. Too often the dog does not really see the owner as
his true leader. These dogs can love their owner but not respect them.
So the solution to the animal aggression
problem starts
with changing this pack leader issue.
Obedience training is the first step.
The process of normal obedience training is sometimes (not always)
enough to establish rank and leadership within the family pack. For
new owners I
recommend that you get my Basic Dog Obedience
training video, a prong collar and a dominant
dog collar. I
seldom train a dog without a prong collar and or a remote collar, I
call them power steering on dogs.
There are also a number of subtle things
that can also go into the process of establishing rank within a pack.
I will not cover all these items in this article but rather point you
to the article I have written on Dealing With
the Dominant Dog.
Unfortunately, all too often normal
obedience
training does not solve the aggression problem. This is because
the pack leader issue has not been settled with the dog. When aggression
issues continue after or during obedience training the dog does
not look to the owner
as the leader.
You know that this is the situation when
the dog will mind in normal circumstances but when it sees another dog
the desire to fight (or protect itself) is so strong that it loses self
control and becomes aggressive again, even when the owner is standing
there telling him not to.
The ultimate training goal for the handler
is to make the dog understand that “IT MUST MIND.” The owner
must be able to convince the dog that NOT MINDING IS NOT AN OPTION.
With some dogs this can only be done
with force in corrections. Not everyone can train a dog to do this.
Some
people
have
soft temperaments and cannot correct
a dog to the level that the dog respects the consequences of not
minding. These people either have to find a new home
for the dog or
keep their
dogs
away
from other dogs and animals.
People need to understand that this
work is
not rocket science. There is no magic training method that is going
to make them into a pack leader for a strong dog.
I often
get emails from people who have gone to dog behaviorists that have
tried
to modify
the behavior
of
the
dog through
halties and other positive methods. With most dogs these goofy
methods fail because the behaviorist simply doesn’t understand
dominance, pack behavior and pack drive.
So back to the corrections to fix the problem.
I begin with a normal command (LEAVE
IT!!)
I do not raise the level of my voice,
I just give the command
in a firm voice. If the dog ignores me I give it a level 20 (on a scale
of 1 to 10) correction with a prong collar. There is an old saying
in
dog training - “One good correction is better than 1,000 nagging
corrections.” That is the concept I apply here. When I tell the
dog to LEAVE IT - I only have to correct the dog 2 or 3 times and it
will always understand that HELL HAS NO FURY LIKE ED AFTER THE “LEAVE
IT” COMMAND!
When a dog understands this it will
not
get aggressive when it sees another dog or animal (this concept applies
to animal aggression - it does not need to be just a dog - it could
be a cat, chicken, or cow etc.)
I wrote an article titled THE
THEORY OF CORRECTIONS IN DOG TRAINING. I recommend that your
review it.
The concept is simple - the dog must
respect the handler and the potential for a correction more than it
has the urge to fight. Just as importantly the handler must praise the
dog (with a happy voice) when the dog minds or when it stops becoming
aggressive after a correction.
This concept must become very black and
white to the dog. Aggression means getting my head taken off with a
prong collar and not being aggressive means getting praised. The dog
must understand that if a strange dog comes near, my pack leader will
kick it’s butt and deal with the situation.
One last point: for those people who
cannot correct their dog hard enough (maybe because of a physical strength
issue) the solution is to use an electric shock
collar. When collars are used I believe that it is very important
to let the dog know that YOU are the one giving the correction. This
means that you always use the LEAVE IT command before applying the shock.
Some trainers make the mistake in saying
that the handler should remain quiet when trying to modify a behavioral
problem. These people are wrong. This is a pack drive issue and the
dog must understand that the correction comes from the pack leader.
If you choose to use an electric collar,
I would recommend the Tri Tronics products. There are a number of collars
on the market but in my opinion these are the best quality there is.
An email on DOG Attacks
Ed,
Kudos to you, for telling it like it is. Ignorance is the cause of
most of the problems I've just read about on your site. I applaud you
for your honesty, and for trying to provide pet owners with good, truthful
information.
I stumbled across your site while searching for information on causes
/ remedies for aggression. I've learned quite a bit. And realize
that our "pack" should be treated differently than we have
been treating them. I will be visiting the site often and reading
up on
pack behavior.
Currently we have 5 fur-kids, ranging from 14 to 1 year in age. Lucy,
a malamute/boxer mix, age 3 and definitely the leader of the whole
pack, has attacked a dog in the past, Sandy, that we had to put down
after breaking a rear leg in the tussle for the second time - our vet
determined that the chances for another recovery from a broken leg
was not very likely for Sandy. The first time, Sandy was in a cast
for 5 months, with weekly bandage changes. Lucy has now turned on our
other female, a sweet submissive black lab/chow mix named Dory. Thanks
to our neighbor, a local animal control officer and rescue worker,
we were able to get Dory stitched up and taken care of in the middle
of the night.
However, since this is the second female dog that Lucy has turned
on, and she has always shown signs of aggression to the point of
requiring
a muzzle at the vet's office, and trying to "eat" a vet
tech, we have decided that her aggression is too dangerous. I've
caught her
once with my cat in her mouth, as well, several months ago. She's
well behaved towards me, but not anyone else, canine, feline or human,
including
my husband. My neighbors fear her, because she's an intimidating
looking dog - although she is featured in the Dog Fancy page-per-day
calendar
for 2005....someone thought she was cute besides me.
Sadly, my Lucy will be euthanized this weekend. It's breaking my heart,
but I believe that this is the best thing for her. I have worked with
our vet, and a behaviorist, and the consensus is that she's not going
to get better, but worse, as she has in the past year or so, progressing
to the point of even growling at me and at the other dogs besides the
female. I've seen aggression info on the web that advocates re-homing
the animal - but your site is the only one that seems to take an honest
approach, that if there is danger involved to people, or other dogs
in the home, the dog needs to be put to sleep. Why dump a behavior
problem on an unsuspecting potential owner??? I admit that I should
have done more work with her regarding her aggression at the first
signs. I've noticed that most of your emails come from people who won't
admit their mistakes. I'm admitting it, and thanking you for providing
a wealth of information on what to do differently going forward.
It's been a hard week, waiting for this weekend, knowing that it's
Lucy's last few days. Your site reinforced my belief that we are making
the right decision, and I guess I just wanted to thank you. I can tell
you've put tons of time and thought and experience into your site.
People tend to be quick to complain, and slow to compliment. I just
wanted to let you know, you've done a wonderful service to pet owners.
Thanks.
S
My Answer on Dog Attacks and Killing this
dog:
The problems you have seen are problems
that result with people who own dog packs.
They also result when these dog packs
are not properly housed – in
other words are allowed to run together and then are not trained. The
fact is these problems are a result of mistakes that you made and not
mistake the dogs made. The dog is just acting like a dog.
Had you used dog kennels or dog crates
and controlled the environment these dogs were allowed to live in – this
dog would not have to be killed.
So when you say that my web site promotes
people who
have dogs like this being put to sleep you are 100% wrong. My web
site promotes that people learn pack behavior, that people learn how
to
properly live with multiple dogs,(using dog crates) and that people
properly train their dogs and control them when out of their crate.
You have done none of the above.
So when you take this dog to the Vet
and kill it you should look it in the eye and apoligize for your mistakes
just before it gets the needle!!!
QUESTION on Dog
Fights:
I found your web site tonight and it
was VERY interesting. I wonder if you could PLEASE give me advice?
I have an almost 2 year old boxer/lab
mix (about 60 lbs) who has been a GREAT dog and easy to train (myself)
until recently. We moved to a new house two months ago, and he was attacked
by a VERY SMALL dog from down the street. The little dog was actually
on my porch and my dog Hunter was cowering in the corner. I wasn't home
(I am mainly his alpha) but my husband was and he tried to encourage
him to stand up for himself. I guess it took awhile, and only when the
little dog got near my husband who was shooing him out of the yard,
did Hunter finally lunge and growl to chase the dog out. I'm sure my
husband gave him praise for this...
NOW, since then, Hunter aggressively
lunges/growls toward any PUPPY he has come into contact with. It is
very scary since Hunter was a puppy/dog that was VERY friendly with
all other dogs until just recently. I have always socialized him with
people and dogs since he was 7 weeks old. This aggressive/growling/lunging
behavior is NOT going on toward the dogs that he already knew beforehand.
Although, he is a male dog and he tries to mount his dog friends (male
or female) ALL the time to show his dominance. I am constantly telling
him to get off, which he does listen to me eventually.
He is VERY good with people. Anyone can
walk into our house (although he barks and growls first at the noise)
or onto our property and he just wants to PLAY PLAY PLAY with any ball
that they want to throw him. He is good with kids. There was a time
that he tried to drop and roll on the feet of the kids to show dominance,
but I immediately reprimand him and he stops and does something else.
But I can not get him to stop this awful
behavior toward puppies (I think it may be all small dogs). I don't
know how far Hunter would actually take it because each time he was
either on a leash and I yanked him back and reprimanded OR the owner
was holding the puppy to try to introduce slowly so he just backed away
past the electric fence (which by the way the owner got scratched in
the lunge/growl/attack). Also by the way, this has happened in a park,
in a vet's waiting room, AND on my property.
Please help. What can I do? What can
I read to learn to break this habit? I'll do whatever you think will
work EVERYDAY if I have to.
Caryn
ANSWER on Dog Fights:
Your husband made a serious mistake.
It will have a life long effect on your dog. You are not going to change
what happened, now you have to figure out how to deal with the results
of doing something stupid.
QUESTION on Dog Attacks:
I would like your advice. I just got
back from taking my 16-month-old intact male rottie to the vet to be
put down. Never showed any signs of aggression. Never growled at anything
or anybody. Friendliest dog you ever met. Everybody loved him. I work
at home, had this dog with me constantly - no long separations. This
morning we went down to the barn as we do every morning to feed the
other animals. He is the only housepet we own. I let the two labs out
of their kennel as I do every morning, and held onto Griz's collar to
give the labs a head start (they like to run and play together). We
have been doing this for over a year. Today, as I held onto the collar,
Griz turned and bit me in the thigh. He broke skin through the jeans,
in fact I have a nice little hole in my thigh. I was very angry and
grabbed him by the scruff (roughly) and told him no! He made no further
aggressive moves towards me. Had this been my 14-year-old daughter he
bit - I would have shot the dog myself. I felt if he would bite me for
simply restraining him, I could no longer trust him. My vet felt the
same way.
Should I have seen this coming? I have
had many dogs in my life - including a GS and a Dobie. Never had my
dog bite me. I believe strongly in discipline - but have never beat
my dogs. I don't want this to happen again, but I have always liked
large dogs will eventually get another one. Question - got any idea
what went wrong? Should I have seen this coming? What should I look
for in a puppy that I missed this time?
Ann
ANSWER Dog Attacks:
You made a number of mistakes.
1- You should not have tried to keep
an intact male Rot as a house dog. You found out why. The dog should
have been neutered or kept in a dog kennel.
2- You should have trained this dog.
Training would have helped establish your rank as pack leader. The dog
did not see you as his leader. If he did he would not have bitten you.
3- Dogs develop problems with rank within
the pack when they go through maturity. This begins at 15 to 36 months
of age. When a dog has a strong pack drive it needs to be trained and
it needs to belong to an owner who understands pack drive. You do not
understand this or you would not have done the things you did. Read
the article I have written titled Dealing with
Dominant Dogs.
4- It is too bad that this had to happen.
I think that had this dog had a different owner, one who did a little
research before they put their dog to sleep, or one who did a little
research before they got to this point - the dog could have lived a
normal life.
QUESTION on Aggressive Dog:
I'm not sure what to do with my nearly
6-year-old lab retriever. He gets along with most people, but he shows
aggression toward one man in my neighborhood.
Shortly after we moved to the neighborhood three years ago, two of
the man's
golden retrievers kept getting loose and
they came into our yard twice and got into a fight with our dog. Shortly
after that our dog barked
whenever the man loaded up those two dogs in particular in the back
of his truck. The man has several other dogs and if neither of those
was in the truck he wouldn't bark.
Now our dog constantly barks at this man, whether his dogs are with
him or not. He could be eating or sleeping or playing and he will drop
what he's doing to bark at this man. We think the man may have done
something to him, and some neighbors suspect that as well.
Our dog is fine with all other humans. He is on an underground fence
and will sometimes chase other dogs out of the yard. He won't start
a fight unless they start one.
Is there anything that we could do to change this behavior, or is
it too late?
ANSWER:
No matter what the reason - EVERY SINGLE
ACT of unwarranted aggression MUST be met with a stiff correction.
No exceptions.
You are the pack leader - you are the one
who is supposed to determine who and when to fight someone - not the
dog.
Dogs instinctually know
this. Yours knows he can get by with being a dink so he does.
If this were my dog I would be training
with an e-collar. In a month or so I will be releasing a training
DVD on e-collar use for the pet
owner. It will be announced on my Table of Contents.
QUESTION on Dog Aggressive Great Dane:
Hello, my name is Melissa and I have an
approx. 8 month old Great Dane/Boxer cross female.
To make a long story short, my ex and I got her unexpectantly (she
was thrown out of a car window at approx. 3 months old) and now my
ex and I are no longer together. He kept her up until last weekend
(Aug. 19, 2006) where my new boyfriend went and picked her up because
my ex said he couldnt have her anymore because she kept attacking his
roomates dog (male bulldog).
Needless to say when my boyfriend and his
friends pulled up to get Nimh, they pulled up to her being punched
in the back of her head by my ex as she was apparently fighting with
the
bulldog
again. Everything was
fine for the first couple of days once my boyfriend got her home, but
she has started literally attacking my boyfriends dogs (he has 3 of
them... a cockapoo, a cockapoo/yorkie cross and a purebred boxer who
is outside by her choice) anytime they go near the food bowl, and has
started just laying down near the bowl and growling at any of the dogs
that comes near. His boxer is about 5 yrs old and that is where Nimh
has been staying is outside with her, because she grabs the two smaller
dogs by there backs when she
goes after them.
Anytime my boyfriend raises her voice or
goes to grab her collar to break it up, she litterally pisses herself
because she thinks she is going
to get beaten for it, so we know that she knows its wrong (and no my
boyfriend and i have never beat her, but yes my ex has), but just can't
control herself?
Before I left the US to come back to Canada when my ex and I were
still together (shortly after getting Nimh), I had her all the time
and I was training her and she was doing really well... well my ex
neglected her and she started messing all over the house and destroying
things... and then when he moved she started attacking the bulldog
where he is at now, now she is going after my boyfriend's dogs.
I am worried that he has wrecked my dog,
and if this keeps up I will have to put her down (she went after the
boxer's throat, but released as soon
as my boyfriend said something and grabbed her collar, but she also
pee'd everywhere).
If you could give us any advice it would be greatly appreciated.
I had an aggressive dog with food before
(my parents still have him, and he is the most wonderful dog), I broke
him of his habit with a
muzzle anytime he showed over aggressivness (he's was towards people,
and he even bit my mother twice drawing blood) and by handing feeding
him as well... he is now about 10 years old, and I still wouldnt stick
my hand in his bowl nor anyone else in my family (well except my nephew
but he was just a baby at the time and didn't understand, we had to
teach him, but Chase never
showed any signs of aggression towards him, he always just backed off
and walked away until my nephew came to him with a handful of dog food.)
So I do have faith that something can be
done with Nimh, I just can't be there yet until next week... Would
the fact that I was the dominat
one before have any effect now even though I haven't seen her in 5
months? Would the muzzle thing work again?
Ok I think I've rambled enough, if you could
offer any advice it would be greatly appreciated.
Thank you so much,
Melissa
ANSWER:
To a great extent dogs live in the present
and not the past. This means if you change the way you live with this
dog today you can fix this problem.
To begin with you own a dog pack and you don't understand pack structure.
I have written extensively on dominance and aggression.
If this were my dog I would be using a dog
crate to keep it away from these other dogs. Read the article I wrote
titled HOW
TO INTRODUCE A NEW DOG INTO A HOME WITH OTHER DOGS. You
will see the mistakes YOU MADE when you brought this dog home.
I would also start with serious obedience training TODAY. Get my Basic
Dog Obedience DVD and do this correctly.
Not knowing this dog I might also train
it with a remote
collar. If
you read the description of my training program with it you will see
why I never DON'T use a collar anymore.
So in closing this problem is man made and can be fixed if you make
the effort to try.
QUESTION:
Hello Mr. Frawley,
My wife and I recently purchased and recieved your video on e-collar
training, and after watching it, we believe it will be a great help
with our dog. We rescued our dog (Jake) from our local humane society
about 3-4 months ago; we believe he is a 18 month old German Shepherd
mix (looks to be part Husky perhaps). Anyway, we have taken him through
a first level obediance class and have been able to make huge gains
with him. He was very mouthy and would jump up on visitors and ourselves
when we first brought him home (which by the way seemed to be encouraged
behaviour - play - at this particular branch). We have brought him
to a point where he will wait for us to go up or down the stairs, go
through doors, go to bed at night (his crate) as well as sit, down,
stay; most importantly he doesn't mouth us or jump up on people (very
rarely jumps and is then corrected). Also, during play he will always
give up his toys shows no reaction when we put them away. The trainer
we use describes our dog as very dominant, but not agressive.
We believe that we are ready to take our training to a new level by
adding more distractions, as he is very good inside the house but not
great outside. He is ok outside and will walk to heal and doesn't pull
on the leash and is generally focused on me; unitl he sees another
dog or any animal for that matter and then he won't respond to commands
(until he is given a hard correction then he may sit, but stays very
focused on the other animal) and even his name. We do walk him on a
choke collar which only seems to be mildly effective, even when given
a tough correction (we haven't used a prong collar on him based on
our trainer saying she thinks he might show handler aggression - I
don't, but then I am not as experienced as our trainer or yourself)
I am going to guess that you will say this is a pack order issue (as
it shouldn't matter if we are inside or out, if I am truly pack leader
he should fall into place - I read and re-read your article of pack
structure regularly, I guess I have some more work to go) We are about
1 week into conditioning jake to wearing his e-collar and he doesn't
put up any resistance and seems to be getting used to it. He doesn't
scratch at it and he even naps with it on, so hopefully this will be
a good start to getting him conditioned; I really agree with your idea
of having a dog that will mind you based on YOUR voice and not just
because he is wearing an e-collar and this is our ultimate goal. I
guess my question is two-fold; 1) what leve correction (1-10) would
you give a dog that shows excitement when is sees another animal? 2)
Is an animal that shows excitement towards another animal always displaying
animal agression? The reason for my second question is because there
is a part on the your video where you talk about dog aggression and
that you start your correction at the highest level on the e-collar
- this was my understanding anyway. I am prepared to do this if necessary,
however, I do not want to ever over correct my dog.
I would be interested and thankful to hear any feedback with regards
to my email and questions!
Sincere Thanks,
Laurence
ANSWER:
I would like to say
that when I take my dog out for walks I always have the remote collar on the dog. I may
not use it very often but it is always on the dog. It’s my emergency
brake – so to speak.
So don’t set yourself up to think you will
get the dog to mind a voice command and NOT NEED TO HAVE HIM WEAR
THE COLLAR. That could
result in a tragedy. I never took my patrol dog on a call out without
his collar on. I seldom had to use it.
In regard to your second question. It does not
sound like your dog is crazy dog aggressive. Those are the dogs that
need high level stimulation
the instant they SEE ANOTHER DOG – not WHEN THEY LIGHT UP ON
ANOTHER DOG.
If I had your dog I would experiment with the levels
until I was able to find the level that the dog was more concerned
with minding than
it was concerned with the other dog it saw. With that said, train with
the collar first. Don’t just jump into walks in areas where there
are other dogs. Do your recall work in your yard with a long line on
and that type of thing, use food as a motivator. There is no hurry
here.
